Field bands of marching locust juveniles show carbohydrate, not protein, limitation.

Locusts are grasshoppers that migrate en masse and devastate food security, yet little is known about the nutritional needs of marching bands in nature. While it has been hypothesized that protein limitation promotes locust marching behavior, migration is fueled by dietary carbohydrates. We studied South American Locust (Schistocerca cancellata) bands at eight sites across Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Bands ate most frequently from dishes containing carbohydrate artificial diets and minimally from balanced, protein, or control (vitamins and salts) dishes-indicating carbohydrate hunger. This hunger for carbohydrates is likely explained by the observation that local vegetation was generally protein-biased relative to locusts' preferred protein to carbohydrate ratio. This study highlights the importance of studying the nutritional ecology of animals in their environment and suggests that carbohydrate limitation may be a common pattern for migrating insect herbivores.

Plant carbohydrate content limits performance and lipid accumulation of an outbreaking herbivore.

Locusts are major intermittent threats to food security and the ecological factors determining where and when these occur remain poorly understood. For many herbivores, obtaining adequate protein from plants is a key challenge. We tested how the dietary protein : non-structural carbohydrate ratio (p : c) affects the developmental and physiological performance of 4th-5th instar nymphs of the South American locust, Schistocerca cancellata, which has recently resurged in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. Field marching locusts preferred to feed on high carbohydrate foods. Field-collected juveniles transferred to the laboratory selected artificial diets or local plants with low p : c. On single artificial diets, survival rate increased as foods became more carbohydrate-biased. On single local plants, growth only occurred on the plant with the lowest p : c. Most local plants had p : c ratios substantially higher than optimal, demonstrating that field marching locusts must search for adequate carbohydrate or their survival and growth will be carbohydrate-limited. Total body lipids increased as dietary p : c decreased on both artificial and plant diets, and the low lipid contents of field-collected nymphs suggest that obtaining adequate carbohydrate may pose a strong limitation on migration for S. cancellata. Anthropogenic influences such as conversions of forests to pastures, may increase carbohydrate availability and promote outbreaks and migration of some locusts.

Selection of soybean pods by the stink bugs, Nezara viridula and Piezodorus guildinii.

Different biological parameters of the stink bugs, Nezara viridula L. and Piezodorus guildinii Westwood (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), are affected by the developmental stage of the soybean (Glycine max Merrill) pods they feed on. These effects of the soybean on the stink bugs could represent a selection pressure leading to the ability of these species to discriminate the phenological stage of soybean pods, and, therefore, to exhibit feeding preferences. We designed three studies: (1) Distant detection of soybean pods through an olfactometer; (2) Free choice tests to evaluate preferences for soybean pods of different developmental stages; (3) No choice tests to study effects of soybean pod development on feeding time and number of probes. Stink bugs showed no differential response to olfactometer arms with or without soybean pods, suggesting an inability to detect soybean volatiles. Free choice tests showed no species effects on pods selection, but significant differences among fifth instar nymphs, adult male, and adult females. Fifth instar nymphs fed more frequently on soybean pods of advanced development stages compared to female adults, despite previous evidence showing poor development of stink bugs fed pods of the same stage. No choice tests showed significant effects of stink bug species, stink bug stage and sex, and soybean pod phenology. N. viridula expressed shorter feeding times and higher numbers of probes than P. guildinii. The highest numbers of probes of both species were observed when they were fed soybean pods in early phenological stages. When placed in direct contact with food, fifth instar nymphs prefered to feed on more developed pods, despite these pods being suboptimal food items. These results suggest that for the ecological time framework of soybean-stink bugs coexistence, around thirty-five years in Argentina, the selection pressure was not enough for stink bugs to evolve food preferences that match their performance on soybean pods of different development stages.

Temperature-dependent development of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson in Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hübner) larvae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) / Temperature-dependent development of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson in Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hübner) larvae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The influence of temperature on the development rate of the entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson in Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hübner) 3rd-instar larvae was studied under constant temperature regimes. A non linear model was used to describe temperature-dependent vegetative and reproductive development rates of the fungus. The temperature required to reach the highest vegetative development rate was estimated to be 25.5°C while lower and upper developmental thresholds were 11°C and 30°C, respectively. The rate of development for conidia release was stable from 18°C to 26°C. The estimated lower and upper thresholds of vegetative development coincide with conditions during the natural epizootics in central Argentina. Non-linear effects of temperature on vegetative and reproductive development rates and probability distributions of N. rileyi under in vivo conditions are described.

A influência da temperatura no desenvolvimento do fungo entomopatogênico Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson foi estudada em larvas no terceiro estágio de desenvolvimento de Anticarsia gemmatalis (Hübner), mantidas sob regime de temperatura constante. Um modelo não-linear foi utilizado para descrever as taxas de crescimento vegetativo e reprodutivo do fungo. A temperatura requerida para obter o maior crescimento vegetativo foi estimada em 25,5°C, enquanto os limites mínimo e máximo foram estimados em 11°C e 30°C, respectivamente. A taxa de conidiação foi estável dos 18°C aos 26°C. As temperaturas mínima e máxima estimadas para o desenvolvimento vegetativo coincidem com as condições ambientais de ocorrência natural na Argentina Central. Efeitos não-lineares da temperatura no crescimento vegetativo e reprodutivo, bem como a probabilidade de distribuição in vivo de N. rileyi são descritos.

Selection of culture media and in vitro assessment of temperature-dependent development of Nomuraea rileyi / Seleção do meio de cultura e avaliação in vitro do desenvolvimento de Nomuraea rileyi dependente da temperatura

In vitro development - radial growth and sporulation - of Nomuraea rileyi isolates from Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner and Plusiinae larvae was studied on four culture media: Sabouraud, maltose, agar and yeast - SMAY; SMAY plus rice extract - SMAYR; complete medium for N. rileyi - CMNr and maltose agar yeast with potato extract - MAYP. Their development on a selected medium (MAYP) was analysed at five temperatures. Two mathematical models were fitted to in vitro and in vivo temperature dependent radial growth rates and thermal requirements were estimated. The medium with potato and yeast extract induced the highest growth rate in most cases, while SMAY induced the lowest rates for the tested isolates. Estimated optimum temperatures for mycelium in vitro growth ranged from 22°C to 26°C. No differences between the proportion of sporulation of colonies maintained at 20°C and 26°C were detected. Few or no colonies sporulated at 12, 16 and 30°C. The relative production of conidia per fungal biomass was very variable, ranging from 0.5 to 16 conidia per centigram of mycelium. Therefore, this was not a useful criterion for selecting a culture medium. Based on present findings, a medium based on potato extract, or enriched slices could be used for N. rileyi experimental and eventually mass production. Because of the similarities found between in vitro and in vivo thermal requirements, thermal traits of the mycosis could be simply estimated on the basis of the environmental temperature.

O desenvolvimento in vitro de isolados de Nomuraea rileyi, obtidos de larvas de Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner e de Plusiinae, foi estudados em quatro meios de cultura: Sabouraud, maltose, agar e levedura - SMAY; SMAY com extrato de arroz - SMAYR; meio completo para N. rileyi - CMNr; e maltose, agar, levedura com extrato de batata - MAYP. Seu crescimento radial em MAYP foi analisado sob cinco temperaturas. Foi estudada a esporulação em relação à temperatura, e a produção de conídios nos quatro meios testados. Dois modelos matemáticos foram aplicados para descrever as taxas de desenvolvimento radial dependentes da temperatura in vitro e in vivo. MAYP permitiu a maior taxa de crescimento, porém SMAY provocou as taxas mais baixas para os isolados testados. As temperaturas ótimas estimadas para o crescimento do micélio in vitro variam de 22°C a 26°C. A esporulação não variou entre 20°C e 26°C. As temperaturas de 12, 16 e 30°C observou-se pouca ou nenhuma esporulação. A produção relativa dos conídios por biomassa de fungo foi muito variável, de 0,5 a 16 conídios por centigrama de micélio, não sendo considerada um critério adequado para escolher o meio de cultura. Com base nos presentes resultados, um meio à base de extrato de batata ou fatias de batata enriquecidas poderiam ser usados para a produção experimental e, eventualmente, massal de N. rileyi. Dadas as similaridades entre exigências térmicas in vitro e in vivo aqui descritas, as características térmicas da micose poderiam ser simplesmente estimadas com base na temperatura ambiente.